Role Of Women Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Job Of Women - Essay Example words, a lady's interest of her accomplice's sexual restraint as a type of anti-conception medication, implied moms with less youngsters could invest more energy raising every one. The mother's job as nurturer supplanted the dad's previous significance as stickler, and in this manner expected ladies to get more training to fulfill this new cultural charge. According to Sklar, the schoolmarm of the American boondocks was an immediate aftereffect of this flood in the quantity of instructed ladies in the late 1800s, similar to the development of incredible associations, for example, the Women's Christian Temperance Union, otherwise called WCTU. (Paxton and Hughes, 2007). This association called WCTU began to help women’s testimonial in the year 1880, and as the dynamic time frame got in progress, these informed, socially cognizant ladies managed different mechanical issues. Sklar likewise noticed that the ladies of white collar class America mobilized for central work rights, whi ch was the objective of common laborers men in different nations, principally Great Britain. As, the National Consumers League, made in 1898, campaigned for the lowest pay permitted by law insurance for female specialists. By 1915, 22 states had such enactment for ladies just, and the lowest pay permitted by law was not reached out to men until the New Deal in 1938. Sklar likewise included that in the year 1920, the ladies who were recently diversified, got a not exactly genial greeting from the Republican Party. They advised ladies to lose their plan of social issues. It is accordingly that all ladies associations ended up promoting ladies directly for them who were hostage of sufferings, as of getting ladies their due right on juries. (Paxton, and Hughes, 2007; Paxton, 2010). In this way, accordingly, more youthful ladies adjusted themselves to the Democratic Party, which previously upheld concern with respect to social-equity... This paper talks about today’s ladies who have gained genuine ground as far as their instructive achievement, wellbeing status, work advertise investment, and so forth., yet they are as yet lingering behind men in the zone of governmental issues. Ladies have not, at this point limited themselves just to their family obligations. The advancement of ladies is very noticeable over the world. In any case, there still emerges an inquiry about whether sexual orientation fairness has truly been accomplished over the world and over each field. While in certain nations ladies have gained colossal ground, in some different countries they are as yet falling a long ways behind than men. So also, while in certain fields, their advancement is truly frightening, in some different circles there isn't a lot of improvement. This paper will attempt to concentrate on the job of ladies in the zone of governmental issues of two nations. With the end goal of this investigation, USA and France have b een picked. In this current world, ladies are no not as much as men. In these previous thirty years, the world has advanced to a colossal degree thus as ladies. The ladies who live in USA have seen to investigate the space, run in the Olympic long distance races and furthermore possessing a good situation on the most elevated court in the land. At that point now the inquiry comes in then why not ladies are given a due opportunity to be the leader of America. In France, the fight for uniformity in the ladies rights development despite everything proceeds. In spite of having the much hailed equivalent right, the domain of French legislative issues despite everything stayed to be out of line and discourteous to ladies.

Tycho Brahe Essays - Copernican Revolution, Tycho Brahe, Philippists

Tycho Brahe Essays - Copernican Revolution, Tycho Brahe, Philippists Tycho Brahe Tycho Brahe Tyge (Latinized as Tycho) Brahe was conceived on 14 December 1546 in Skane, at that point in Denmark, presently in Sweden. He was the oldest child of Otto Brahe and Beatte Bille, both from families in the high respectability of Denmark. He was raised by his fatherly uncle Jrgen Brahe and turned into his beneficiary. He went to the colleges of Copenhagen and Leipzig, and afterward went through the German locale, concentrating further at the colleges of Wittenberg, Rostock, and Basel. During this period his enthusiasm for speculative chemistry and space science was stimulated, and he purchased a few cosmic instruments. In 1572 Tycho watched the new star in Cassiopeia and distributed a concise tract about it the next year. In 1574 he gave a course of talks on stargazing at the University of Copenhagen. He was presently persuaded that the improvement of space science depended on exact perceptions. After another voyage through Germany, where he visited space experts, Tycho acknowledged a proposal from the King Frederick II to support an observatory. He was given the little island of Hven in the Sont close to Copenhagen, and there he manufactured his observatory, Uraniburg, which turned into the best observatory in Europe. Tycho structured and manufactured new instruments, adjusted them, and organized daily perceptions. He additionally ran his own print machine. The observatory was visited by numerous researchers, and Tycho prepared an age of youthful cosmologists there in the craft of watching. After a dropping out with King Christian IV, Tycho got together his instruments and books in 1597 and left Denmark. In the wake of voyaging quite a long while, he settled in Prague in 1599 as the Imperial Mathematician at the court of Emperor Rudolph II. He passed on there in 1601. His instruments were put away and in the end lost. Tycho Brahe's commitments to stargazing were huge. He not just planned and manufactured instruments, he additionally adjusted them and checked their precision occasionally. He subsequently reformed cosmic instrumentation. He likewise changed observational practice significantly. While prior space experts had been substance to watch the places of planets and the Moon at certain signif icant purposes of their circles. Tycho and his cast of associates watched these bodies all through their circles. Thus, various orbital peculiarities never before saw were made unequivocal by Tycho. Without these total arrangement of perceptions of extraordinary exactness, Kepler couldn't have found that planets move in circular circles. Tycho was additionally the principal space expert to make remedies for climatic refraction*. When all is said in done, while past space experts mentioned objective facts exact to maybe 15 circular segment minutes, those of Tycho were exact to maybe 2 circular segment minutes, and it has been demonstrated that his best perceptions were exact to about a large portion of a bend minute. Tycho's perceptions of the new star of 1572 and comet of 1577, and his distributions on these wonders, were instrumental in building up the way that these bodies were over the Moon and that in this way the sky were not changeless as Aristotle had contended rationalists despite everything accepted. The sky were variable and in this way the Aristotelian division between the glorious and natural districts went under assault (see, for example, Galileo's Dialog) and was in the end dropped. Further, if comets were in the sky, they traveled through the sky. Up to now it had been accepted that planets were carried on material circles (circular shells) that fit firmly around one another. Tycho's perceptions demonstrated that this game plan was outlandish in light of the fact that comets traveled through these circles. Heavenly circles became dim of presence somewhere in the range of 1575 and 1625. Tycho built up a framework that joined the best of the two universes. He kept the Earth in the focal point of the universe, so he could hold Aristotelian material science The Moon and Sun rotated about the Earth, and the shell of the fixed stars was focused on the Earth. Be that as it may, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn spun about the Sun. He put the (roundabout) way of the comet of 1577 among Venus and Mars. This Tychonic world framework got well known from the get-go in the seventeenth century among the individuals who felt compelled to dismiss the Ptolemaic course of action of the planets (wherein the Earth was the focal point everything being equal) yet who, for different reasons, couldn't acknowledge the Copernican other option. Tycho's significant works incorporate De Nova et Nullius Aevi Memoria Prius Visa Stella (On the New and Never

Algorithms on Khan Academy in collaboration with Dartmouth College

Algorithms on Khan Academy in collaboration with Dartmouth College What is an algorithm? Its a sequence of steps that you follow to solve a problem. In everyday life, you might have an algorithm for hanging up your laundry, efficiently going through a shopping list, or finding an empty parking space in a lot. In computer science, an algorithm is a sequence of instructions that a computer program follows. Algorithms form the basis of the most interesting and important programs we use, such as the algorithm that Google uses to calculate driving directions, or the algorithm that Facebook uses to automatically tag you in a photo. Because algorithms are so important to computer science, they are a core part of a computer science curriculum. The AP CS A class teaches object-oriented programming with algorithms,  every college CS student will have at least one algorithms class and encounter algorithms everywhere, and every software engineer interviewing for a job will review algorithms while theyre prepping for an interview. Given how important algorithms are, we were elated when Dartmouth professors Thomas Cormen and Devin Balkcom suggested writing an online course on Algorithms, available to anyone for free, forever, on Khan Academy. If youre a college CS student, you might recognize the name Cormen - hes the C in the CLRS-authored Algorithms textbook, the most popular algorithms textbook used by college classes. Balkcom is a fellow professor at Dartmouth, and hes actually rewritten their introductory CS class, so hes an expert in teaching algorithms to new computer science students.  We worked over the summer to create an introductory Algorithms class thats highly interactive. Algorithms can be hard to wrap your head around, so we have both step-by-step diagrams and interactive visualizations to explain each algorithm: We also want to give you a chance to try coding the algorithms yourself, so weve used our JavaScript coding challenge framework to write 19 challenges with unit tests (and youll have to write unit tests yourself!): Weve also sprinkled in a few quizzes, to make sure you understand concepts like asymptotic and graph notation: This curriculum covers everything youd find in an intro course - asymptotic notation, binary search, selection/insertion sort, recursion, merge/quick sort, graph representation, and breadth first search. Theres much more to cover, of course, including going more into how you can design your own algorithms, but were so excited about what we have now and how much it could help software engineers in all stages of life that we want to get it in your hands now. Please dive into the course and let us know what you think - you can leave comments beneath the articles,  or email us more detailed feedback at compsci-feedback@khanacademy.org. Thank you again to Thomas Cormen, Devin Balkcom, and their supporting staff at Dartmouth  for making this Algorithms class a possibility. Posted by Pamela Fox, Khan Academy.

Clara Barton and The American Red Cross - 1976 Words

The American Red Cross (ARC) Clara Barton founded the American Red Cross after becoming involved in the work of the International Red Cross during the Franco-Prussian War. Her heart of giving and helping others convinced her that an American chapter was needed in her country in 1881. The ARC is a humanitarian organization that is dependent on the contributions of time, blood, and money from the American public to support its multiple lifesaving services and programs. The ARC’s mission is to prevent and alleviate human suffering in the face of emergencies by mobilizing the power of volunteers and the generosity of donors. The ARC from its humble beginnings and up to recently has provided great support the American public and military during†¦show more content†¦The leader needs to instill urgency into the workers and volunteers of the ARC. Taking an organization that’s on its knees requires great cooperation, initiative, and willingness to make sacrifices from many people (Kotter, 2011). Ba sed on the case study, the ARC lacks all these characteristics for change to occur. It needs to look how to improve its response times, how to become more efficient in collecting denotations and how to prioritize and quickly distribute the donations it receives in a fair and efficient manner. It needs to hold its leaders to a higher standard that will instill a culture of high moral standard in its employees and volunteers. Once the nation sees a change in the behavior of the ARC they will be more willing to give donations and their time to support disaster relief efforts. The Role Stakeholder Orientation Played in the Scenario It is vital that every organization is able to accurately identify their stakeholders, whether it is a for profit or a non-profit organization. One of the most important reasons for identifying and understanding stakeholders is that it allows the organization to recruit them as part of their efforts and learn firsthand on their needs and requirements (Rabinowitz, 2014). We live in an uncertain world whereShow MoreRelatedClara Barton and the American Red Cross558 Words   |  3 PagesClara Barton and the American Red Cross Clara Barton was born on December 25, 1821 in Oxford, Massachusetts. Clara was the youngest of five children in a middle class family. She was educated at home until the age of fifteen, when Clara began teaching school herself. Though Clara Barton is probably most known for establishing the Red Cross, she only had two years of medical experience before the war. Clara gained this experience by taking care of her invalid (a person made weak by injuryRead MoreClara Barton s The American Red Cross2355 Words   |  10 PagesPaper Clara Barton Clara Barton is not only an example of women/ Americans at their finest, but she also can and should be revered as a national hero. Clara Barton answered the call to duty in a time when women weren t necessarily valued not only socially but as assets of contribution. Clara Barton took up the call by helping save thousands of lives through nursing and providing supplies during the Civil War while also introducing one of America’s first responding organizations, the American RedRead MoreAnalysis Of Clara Barton s The American Red Cross 1486 Words   |  6 PagesSynthesis Essay – Clara Barton MSgt Tomeika P. Frazier Air Force Senior Noncommissioned Officer Academy November 2, 2014 Instructor: MWO Pascal Turcotte Clara Barton In one year they have responded to 700,000 disasters around the world, provided 1.8 million meals, 45% of the nation’s blood supply and inspired 17,000 volunteers. This premier humanitarian organization is the American Red Cross and is a part of theRead MoreThe American Red Cross Is A Humanitarian Based Organization Created By Clara Barton1566 Words   |  7 PagesThe American Red Cross is a humanitarian based organization created by Clara Barton in 1881. According to The RedCross.org, Barton was inspired to create the Red Cross because of her service trip in Europe were she was stationed as a nurse where she heard of a Swiss based Red Cross that treated wounded soldiers in the war. Barton admired their work and decided to start a branch in the United States. The Red Cross has blossomed into an organization that provides relief towards natural disasters, emergencyRead MoreThe Angel of the Battlefield1215 Words   |  5 PagesAngel of the Battlefield Clara Barton once said, I have an almost disregard of precedent and a faith in the possibility of something better. It irritates me to be told how things have always been doneÂ… I defy the tyranny of precedent. I cannot afford the luxury of a closed mind. I go for anything new that might improve the past (Lewis 1). Also known at the Angel of the Battlefield during the Civil War, Clara Barton is a great heroine for her many achievements such as: establishing a free publicRead MoreA Brief Biography of Clara Barton632 Words   |  3 Pagesfeed and nurse them,† Clara Barton once said. She was always quick to help others, and put their lives before her own. She wasn’t very talkative, but she was very generous. Barton was named â€Å"The Angel of The Battlefield† she got this name while she was considering having an escort and months after he has been her escort that’s what she got named. Clara would make sure she gave the soldiers the correct care they need ed. Clara Barton changed the health for many. Barton benefited in changingRead MoreThe Military History Of The American Red Cross1158 Words   |  5 PagesThe Military History of the American Red Cross Following the Battle of Cedar Mountain in 1862, a surgeon was feeling the pressures of disaster, when a woman named Clara Barton, came in to his office. He referred to her as an Angel sent from heaven. At this time, she volunteered her services to help out in any way she could (â€Å"Founder Clara Barton†). Clara and a group of her friends founded the American Red Cross in 1881. They were known as the â€Å"angels of the battle field† (â€Å"Mclean†). At times ofRead More Clara Barton Biography Essay1216 Words   |  5 PagesClara Barton Clara Barton, known as an American humanitarian, the â€Å"Angel of the Battlefield,† and known for being the American Red Cross founder accomplished many things during her life. Throughout her long commitment of service, Clara achieved honor as a teacher, battlefield nurse, lecturer, and founder of the American Red Cross. Through her many years of work, Clara made a huge impact on America that can still be felt at present times. Clara was born Clarissa Harlowe Barton onRead MoreLife And Work Of Clara Barton1054 Words   |  5 Pagesarticles I am using as support for my research paper are Clara Barton: Teacher, Nurse, Civil War Heroine, Founder of the American Red Cross written by Gerald Evans, The Life and Work of Clara Barton written by Ida Husted Harper, and The Role of Gender, Phrenology, Discrimination and Nervous Prostration in Clara Barton’s Career written by Allen Spiegel. All of these articles present relevant information about the inspirations and challenges Clara Barton experienced through her work in the medical field,Read MoreAnalysis Of Clara Barton s Life1322 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction Clara Barton had many accomplishments throughout her life in all her endeavors. Her story begins at a young age and continues into her career as a valuable individual saving lives as a nurse. The accumulation of events and contributing factors that Barton experienced from her childhood into her adult years shaped her into the nurse remembered in history and helped mold the face of nursing for the future. Background Clara Barton is most notably remembered for her accomplishments, with

20 Obscure Rhetorical Terms and Figures of Speech

You probably know many figures of speech, such terms as metaphor and metonymy, irony and understatement—all the rhetorical terms that you probably learned in school. But what about some of the less familiar figures and tropes? There are hundreds of them, after all.  And while we may not recognize their names, we use and hear a good number of these devices every day. 20 More Obscure Figures of Speech Lets take a look at 20 uncommon words (most of them Latin or Greek) for some fairly common rhetorical strategies. Accismus  - Coyness; a form of irony in which a person feigns a lack of interest in something that he or she actually desires.Anadiplosis  - Repetition of the last word of one line or clause to begin the next.Apophasis  - Emphasizing a point by seeming to pass over it—that is, mentioning something while disclaiming any intention of mentioning it.Aposiopesis  - An unfinished thought or broken sentence.Bdelygmia  - A litany of abuse—a series of critical epithets, descriptions, or attributes.Boosting  - An adverbial construction used to support a claim or express a viewpoint more assertively and convincingly.Chleuasmos - A sarcastic reply that mocks an opponent, leaving him or her without an answer.Dehortatio  -  Dissuasive advice given with authority.Diatyposis  - Recommending useful precepts or advice to someone else.Epexegesis  - Adding words or phrases to further clarify or specify a statement already made.Epimone  - Frequent repetition of a phras e or question; dwelling on a point.Epizeuxis  - Repetition of a word or phrase for emphasis (usually with no words in between).Hypocrisis  - Exaggerating the gestures or speech habits of another in order to mock him.Paronomasia  -  Punning, playing with words.Prolepsis  - ​A figurative device by which a future event is presumed to have already occurred.Skotison  - Intentionally obscure speech or writing, designed to confuse an audience rather than clarify an issue.Synathroesmus  - The piling up of adjectives, often in the spirit of invective.Tapinosis  - Name-calling; undignified language that debases a person or thing.Tetracolon Climax  - A series of four members, usually in parallel form.Zeugma  - Use of a word to modify or govern two or more words although its use may be grammatically or logically correct with only one.

Cell Division Free Essays

I believe that our observations are repressentative of cell division taking place in the oinon root tip. Firstly, this is because our numbers of the number of cells in each phase of mitosis are similar to the rest of the groups, so we can assume our results are most likely correct. We can also assume our calculations are right because we know that Interphase is the most active phase in the process of cell divison, which would agree with our calculations since we assume that approxiamtly 93% of cells are going though Interphase. We will write a custom essay sample on Cell Division or any similar topic only for you Order Now The phases of mitosis are much shorter then that of Interphase, and the cell spends less time in these phases. This agrees with our calculations because they run around 2-10%, conculding the fact that it is right to infere that a smaller amount of cells would be in the phases of mitosis. 5. Plants use a similar process with a few differences than in the human process. A plant cell creates a mitotic spindle and has a centrosome, but it does not have a centrioles, as in human chromosomes. The other major difference in plants is the way in which cytokinesis occurs. In human cells, the plasma membrane invaginates along the equator of the cell, creating a cleavage furrow that will separate the cytoplasm in two daughter cells. Plant cells have rigid cell walls that prevent this. Instead, they use two different approaches for cytokinesis. The plasma membrane and cell wall grow inward together, eventually separating the parent cell into two. Then the cell wall(which human cells do not contain) will separate the two daughter cells, and the cell wall starts growing in the middle of the cell between the two nuclei. This is known as the cell plate. It continues growing until its edges reach the cell’s outer surface, separating the parent cell into two daughter cells. 6. Not all cells in the meristematic region of the onion appear to have a nucleus. This is because The earliest cells, and all prokaryote cells, don’t have a nucleus. Inside these simple cells, the DNA molecules just float around in the cytoplasm. When the cells have devoloped, most likely during telophase,the nucleus will appear. 7. The result of if the chromosomes of the two daughter cells remained on one side of the cell plate could be non-disjunction, where a chromosome may fail to separate during anaphase. One daughter cell will receive both sister chromosomes and the other will receive none. This results in the former cell having three chromosomes containing the same genes (two sisters and a homologue), and will develop into a condition called trisomy, and the latter cell which would only have one chromosome (the homologous chromosome), would be a condition known as monosomy. These cells are considered aneuploid, a condition often associated with cancer. 8. A class result is better in the measure of the time for each miotic phase because we can compare each number of time that each group gets. If the numbers are similar we can infere that it is more probable to be the right answer, and can exclude any numbers that are an abnormal greater difference then the rest. By comparing all the calculations and observations of the class, we can justify the observations that are similar to those of the rest of the class. 9. Biocide 2-4D would harm and prevent the action of the substances within the meristematic cells of the plants. It will also cause major issues in sex cells because the chromosomes during metaphase 1 will not exchange proper genes with each other. How to cite Cell Division, Papers

Techniques for Detecting, Preventing or Mitigating DoS or Distributed DoS attacks

Introduction The internet has become part of the daily lives of people throughout the world. Some services such as banking, transportation, and healthcare are heavily dependent on it. According to Patrikakis, Masikos, and Zouraraki (2004), the internet is an intricate system of computers that are linked with the intention of creating an easy communication platform.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Techniques for Detecting, Preventing or Mitigating DoS or Distributed DoS attacks specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The frequent use of the internet, like other systems, has been associated with problems, with the example being the Denial of Service (DoS) attacks (Patrikakis, Masikos, Zouraraki, 2004). Different researchers have looked at how these attacks occur and/or the available methods of detecting prevention and mitigation. According to Patrikakis, Masikos, and Zouraraki (2004), a Denial of Service attack occurs when individuals or groups of individuals attempt to block the provision of internet services by an internet company to its users. On the other hand, Distributed Denial of Services occurs when the threat originates from multiple sources (Patrikakis, Masikos, Zouraraki, 2004). This research paper reviews some of the documented methods of detecting, preventing, or mitigating Denial of Service (DoS) and Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS). Background The prevalence of DoS and DDOS attacks has constantly been on the increase with the increased number of internet users and number of people with skills being capable of initiating the same. The prevalence of these attacks has necessitated increased research, with a number of articles being available on the same. The techniques used are constantly changing to keep up with the pace at which the attackers are changing their own tactics. The articles selected for review in the research paper were those that featured the appropriate me thods that are currently in use. The attack on DoS and DDoS takes different shapes. Different researchers have described the examples of the attacks together with how they may be prevented. The individuals and groups involved in the development of these attack methods have constantly developed tactics of evading any method that is developed to counter them, and hence the need for new methods to retain the security of the internet and its users. These methods are discussed below. Techniques from the Articles This section looks at the findings from the different articles. Charalampos Patrikakis, Michalis Masikos, and Olga Zouraraki (2004) did the first article that describes the detection, prevention, and mitigation of the DoS and DDoS attacks. In this article, the researchers describe the meaning of the internet, DoS and DDoS, and/or how the attacks on DoS and DDoS occur (Patrikakis, Masikos, Zouraraki, 2004).Advertising Looking for research paper on communications media? Let' s see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More They discuss the basic mechanisms in the development of the problem before proceeding to examine how they lead to the eventual collapse of services over the internet for a company. Some of the mechanisms in use for detecting, preventing, and mitigating the attacks are also discussed in the article. One preventive measure that is suggested in the article is the constant update of software in machines (Patrikakis, Masikos, Zouraraki, 2004). Attacks are described as often occurring in machines that are not frequently updated. According to Patrikakis, Masikos and Zouraraki (2004), the update of software allows machines to work against the malicious attacks with ease. The users are able to prevent the attacks effectively as the software prevents the possibility of participating in an attack without its prior knowledge, and hence an effective measure of prevention. Observations show that frequently updated ma chines are better protected. The second protection measure discussed in the article is the monitoring of any access to the computer, installation of security patches and firewalls, and the adoption of automatic detection systems for intrusion (Patrikakis, Masikos, Zouraraki, 2004). According to Patrikakis, Masikos, and Zouraraki (2004), this method causes reduced traffic for offenders, with the machine frequently reporting on its health to a network. The owners are also able to keep track of the machine performance, thus allowing them to make any necessary changes, and hence an effective method of prevention that allows a greater degree of prevention of DoS and DDoS attacks (Patrikakis, Masikos, Zouraraki, 2004). The detection measure that is discussed in the article is signature detection, which involves the detection of footprints or signatures that are associated with sources of malicious programs (Patrikakis, Masikos, Zouraraki, 2004). The programs matching this signature are denied access to the machine, thus leading to a reduction of attacks. The researchers confirm that the method is effective because it is reliable and easy to utilize, with a better outcome in the detection of attacks as compared to other methods (Patrikakis, Masikos, Zouraraki, 2004).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Techniques for Detecting, Preventing or Mitigating DoS or Distributed DoS attacks specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Zargar Saman, James Joshi and David Tipper (2013) provide the other article that looks at DoS and DDoS attacks. This article also defines the Distributed Denial of Services. It states that they are attempts to disrupt legitimate users of the internet. Besides, it discusses the existing measures in the prevention and mitigation of the same. The first detection mechanism that is stated in the article is the trace back mechanism. According to Zargar, Joshi, and Tipper (2013), thi s mechanism involves the tracing of IP packets backward to the real sources instead of leading to the forged IO addresses. This mechanism allows for detection and tracing of the origin of attackers. It is effective in achieving this goal. According to Zargar, Joshi, and Tipper (2013), the two categories in which these mechanisms apply is the packet marking and/or through link testing. The second detection mechanism stated in the article is the use of network-based mechanisms (Zargar, Joshi, Tipper, 2013). In these mechanisms, the measures to detect the attacks and the attackers are deployed within the network with the application of routers (Zargar, Joshi, Tipper, 2013). In these detection mechanisms, the main example is the use of the route-based packet filtering strategy (Zargar, Joshi, Tipper, 2013). This measure is effective since it allows the detection of threats while still in the network. The users do not receive the attacks on their machines. The process of detection is automated and more effective. One of the measures that are used to prevent attacks from the malicious individuals is the Active Internet Traffic Filtering (Zargar, Joshi, Tipper, 2013). In this mechanism, the receiver of the services opts to deny traffic to all unrecognized connections while only accepting traffic that is owned by a predetermined network (Zargar, Joshi, Tipper, 2013). This means that receivers have control over what they can access and/or what gains access to their machines. This measure is effective in prevention of threats since most of the threats are from unrecognized sources. The third article looks at the results of a survey conducted on the defense mechanisms to counter DoS and DDoS. It looks specifically at the network-based mechanisms (Peng, Leckie, Ramamohanarao, 2006). One of the detection techniques discussed by Peng, Leckie, and Ramamohanarao (2006) is the MULTOPS scheme that was proposed by Gil and Poletto in 2001.Advertising Looking for research paper on communications media? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In this technique, the evaluation of packet rate is done between a subnet and the host (Peng, Leckie, Ramamohanarao, 2006). The assumption is that the rate is always proportional. When a disproportion is noted, there is an indication of a likely DoS attack (Peng, Leckie, Ramamohanarao). This scheme is useful as it helps detect the possible threats before they cause significant damage. However, some of the attackers have found ways of confusing the process. The other detection technique that Peng, Leckie, and Ramamohanarao (2006) discuss in their article is the SYN detection that they stated to have originated from Wang and his colleagues in 2002. This detection method evaluates the ration of several factors, including SYN, FIN, and RST (Peng, Leckie, Ramamohanarao, 2006). This method is as effective as any other method of detecting attacks. Users in the past have often described it as effective. The opinion is that the use of this method in the detection of DoS attacks will be ad equate. The use of ratios of different packets according to Peng, Leckie and Ramamohanarao (2006) is effective in the end because many attacks are prevented based on their characteristics (Peng, Leckie, Ramamohanarao, 2006). The article also discusses some of the prevention measures that may be used for DoS and DDoS attacks. One of the prevention measures that are discussed is the Ingress/Egress filtering, which involves the filtering of traffic that is coming to the local network together with the one that is leaving the same network (Peng, Leckie, Ramamohanarao, 2006). In this method, the malicious codes that are involved in the attack are filtered before they make any changes to the local network. They result in the security of the network as a whole (Peng, Leckie, Ramamohanarao, 2006). This measure is effective in the prevention of attacks to DoS and DDoS. The fourth article was selected based on its relevant to the subject on DoS and DDoS attacks. In this article by John Vac ca (2002), the internet service providers (ISPs) are recognized as important contributors towards network security. Their collaboration with customers is recognized as important in this measure. The article states a number of measures to detect intrusion and DoS and DDoS attacks in networks. The example of a measure that is proposed in the detection of attacks is the use of special software (Vacca, 2002) such as anti-viruses and online software that can filter the threats to the network and its users. This measure is deemed useful. The next suggested measure is the use of intrusion detection systems (Vacca, 2002). In this particular detection measure, Vacca (2002) confirms that the ISP Company will be efficient in evaluating the magnitude of the threats and use the available resources to counter them. The main example provided is the use of measures such as the specified intrusion detection systems. The measure is effective. The last article looks at the prevention of DoS and DDoS a ttacks through cooperation between the ISPs and the companies that form the bulk of their customers (Work Together To Stop DoS Attacks, 2001). The article states that the attacks may be mitigated through cooperation between the ISPs since they can exchange information on the sources of these attacks and lead to a safer internet (Work Together To Stop DoS Attacks, 2001). The article cites some of the attacks that have occurred, including the damage that they had on the respective organizations. The other measure that is proposed is the cooperation between customers and the internet service providers. This collaboration is touted as an important way of mitigating the threats posed by these attacks (Work Together to Stop DoS Attacks, 2001). The author states that networks must evaluate the measures that work in the prevention of attacks, including the network architecture and data access systems (Work Together to Stop DoS Attacks, 2001). These are recognized as important measures in th e achievement of total internet security. The article does not mention some of the measures that are specific to the detection of DoS and DDoS attacks. However, it establishes cooperation as an important measure in their prevention. Conclusion The internet is an important tool in the daily lives of most individuals. There are institutions that are dependent on it for normal functioning. Developments in security have led to frequent DoS and DDoS attacks, with internet users paying the price. These attacks have necessitated the creation of measures that are aimed at prevention, detection, and mitigation of any threats as discussed in the research paper. Reference List Patrikakis, C., Masikos, M., Zouraraki, O. (2004). Distributed Denial of Service Attacks. The Internet Protocol Journal, 7(4), 1-13. Peng, T., Leckie, C., Ramamohanarao, K. (2006). Survey of Network-based Defence Mechanisms Countering the DoS and DDoS Problems. ACM Transactions on Computational Logic, 2(3), 1-46. Vacca , J. (2002). Partnering for protection: ISPs and their customers must work together for stronger network security. Web. Work Together To Stop DoS Attacks. (2001). Web. Zargar, T., Joshi, J., Tipper, D. (2013). Survey of Defense Mechanisms Against Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) Flooding Attacks. IEEE Communications Surveys Tutorials. Web. This research paper on Techniques for Detecting, Preventing or Mitigating DoS or Distributed DoS attacks was written and submitted by user Sara L. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

The New U.S. Meat Industry essays

The New U.S. Meat Industry essays The new U.S. meat industry of food retailers, meat processors, and farms and ranches coalesce into fewer and larger businesses are emerging. These new giants like Wal-Mart could drive up food prices for consumers and drive down livestock prices for consumers and drive down livestock prices for producers. Grocery stores have merged or acquired other stores, spawning several major grocery chains and large general merchandise stores and warehouse clubs have appeared on the retail scene. While market power seems to be uprising public policy ensures that all participants will benefit from the new structure. With this new structure the number of meat processing firms has dwindled rapidly, boosting the market share held by the industrys largest players while the number of slaughter plants have plunged. Food demand and technology are the two forces of the meat industrys transformation to a more compact structure. Consumers are looking for food that is easy to prepare while also promising safe eating, improved nutrition, and greater consistency. The U.S. food market is notoriously slow growing with food spending rising more slowly than consumer incomes. Consumers are buying more conveniently prepared food products of consistent quality, despite the sluggish growth of over all food spending. With increased consumption from poultry profit margins in the beef and pork processing industries tightened. Meat is the single largest expenditure item in the consumer grocery cart, and livestock represents the single biggest item on U.S. agricultures income statement. The Sherman Antitrust Act, the Clayton Act, and the Federal Trade Commission Act express the nations commitment to a free market economy where competition benefits both consumer and businesses. This new structure should reflect these laws and expectations that benefit all participants. ...

Joshua L. Chamberlain in the American Civil War

Joshua L. Chamberlain in the American Civil War Birth Early Life: Born in Brewer, ME on September 8, 1828, Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain was the son of Joshua Chamberlain and Sarah Dupee Brastow. The oldest of five children, his father desired that he pursue a career in the military while his mother encouraged him to become a preacher. A gifted student, he taught himself Greek and Latin in order to attend Bowdoin College in 1848. While at Bowdoin he met Harriet Beecher Stowe, the wife of Professor Calvin Ellis Stowe, and listened to readings of what would become Uncle Toms Cabin. After graduating in 1852, Chamberlain studied for three years at the Bangor Theological Seminary before returning to Bowdoin to teach. Serving as a professor of rhetoric, Chamberlain taught every subject with the exception of science and math. Personal Life: In 1855, Chamberlain married Frances (Fanny) Caroline Adams (1825-1905). The daughter of local clergyman, Fanny had five children with Chamberlain three of which died in infancy and two, Grace and Harold, which survived to adulthood. Following the end of the Civil War, the Chamberlains relationship became increasingly strained as Joshua had difficulty readjusting to civilian life. This was exacerbated by his election as Governor of Maine in 1866 which necessitated him being away from home for long periods.   Despite these problems, the two reconciled and remained together until her death in 1905. As Fanny aged, her sight deteriorated, leading Chamberlain to become a founding member of the Maine Institution of the Blind in 1905. Entering the Army: With the beginning of the Civil War, Chamberlain, whose forefathers had served in the American Revolution and War of 1812, sought to enlist. He was prevented from doing so by the administration at Bowdoin who stated he was too valuable to lose. In 1862, Chamberlain requested and was granted a leave of absence to study languages in Europe. Departing Bowdoin, he quickly volunteered his services to the governor of Maine, Israel Washburn, Jr. Offered command of the 20th Maine Infantry, Chamberlain declined stating he wished to learn the trade first and instead became the regiments lieutenant colonel on August 8, 1862. He was joined in the 20th Maine by his younger brother, Thomas D. Chamberlain. Serving under Colonel Adelbert Ames, Chamberlain and the 20th Maine mustered in on August 20, 1862. Assigned to the 1st Division (Major General George W. Morell), V Corps (Major General Fitz John Porter) of Major General George B. McClellans Army of the Potomac, the 20th Maine served at the Antietam, but was held in reserve and did not see action. Later that fall, the regiment was part of the attack on Maryes Heights during the Battle of Fredericksburg. Though the regiment suffered relatively light casualties, Chamberlain was forced to spend the night on the cold battlefield using corpses for protection against Confederate fire. Escaping, the regiment missed the fight at Chancellorsville the following May due to a smallpox outbreak. As a result, they were posted to guard duty in the rear. Gettysburg: Shortly after Chancellorsville, Ames was promoted brigade command in Major General Oliver O. Howards XI Corps, and Chamberlain ascended to command of the 20th Maine. On July 2, 1863, the regiment entered action at Gettysburg. Assigned to hold Little Round Top on the extreme left of the Union line, the 20th Maine was tasked with ensuring the Army of the Potomacs position was not flanked. Late in the afternoon, Chamberlains men came under attack from Colonel William C. Oates 15th Alabama. Repelling multiple Confederate assaults, he continued to extend and refuse (bend back) his line to prevent the Alabamans from turning his flank.   With his line nearly bent back upon itself and his men running low on ammunition, Chamberlain boldly ordered a bayonet charge which routed and captured many of the Confederates. Chamberlains heroic defense of the hill earned him the Congressional Medal of Honor and the regiment everlasting fame. Overland Campaign Petersburg: Following Gettysburg, Chamberlain assumed command of the 20th Maines brigade and led this force during the Bristoe Campaign that fall.   Falling ill with malaria, he was suspended from duty in November and sent home to recover. Returning to the Army of the Potomac in April 1864, Chamberlain was promoted to back brigade command in June after the Battles of the Wilderness, Spotsylvania Court House, and Cold Harbor. On June 18, while leading his men during an attack on Petersburg, he was shot through the right hip and groin. Supporting himself on his sword, he encouraged his men on before collapsing. Believing the wound to be fatal, Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant promoted Chamberlain to brigadier general as a final act. Over the following weeks, Chamberlain clung to life and managed to recover from his wounds after undergoing an operation by the 20th Maines surgeon, Dr. Abner Shaw, and Dr. Morris W. Townsend of the 44th New York. Returning to duty in November 1864, Chamberlain served for the remainder of the war. On March 29, 1865, his brigade led the Union attack at the Battle of Lewis Farm outside Petersburg. Wounded again, Chamberlain was brevetted to major general for his gallantry. On April 9, Chamberlain was alerted to the Confederates desire to surrender. The next day he was told by V Corps commander Major General Charles Griffin that of all the officers in the Union army, he had been selected to receive the Confederate surrender. On April 12, Chamberlain presided over the ceremony and ordered his men to attention and carry arms as a sign of respect for their vanquished foe. Postwar Career: Leaving the army, Chamberlain returned home to Maine and served as the states governor for four years. Stepping down in 1871, he was appointed to the presidency of Bowdoin. Over the next twelve years he revolutionized the schools curriculum and updated its facilities. Forced to retire in 1883, due to aggravation of his war wounds, Chamberlain remained active in public life, the Grand Army of the Republic, and in planning events for veterans. In 1898, he volunteered for service in the Spanish-American War and was bitterly disappointed when his request was turned down. On February 24, 1914, the Lion of Little Round Top died at the age of 85 in Portland, ME. His death was largely the result of complications of his wounds, making him the last Civil War veteran to die from wounds received in battle.

Monopoly and AntitrustPolicy Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Monopoly and AntitrustPolicy - Assignment Example What would happen if the law preventing competition in this market was removed? Explain your answer. According to Foldvary (2010), â€Å"A "natural monopoly" is defined in economics as an industry where the fixed cost of the capital goods is so high that it is not profitable for a second firm to enter and compete. There is a "natural" reason for this industry being a monopoly, namely that the economies of scale require one, rather than several, firms. Small-scale ownership would be less efficient.† The USPS is a natural monopoly. Costs would go up if competition was allowed in this market. With natural monopolies, one firm can control an entire industry and still achieve the lowest price. 4. Patents are granted every 20 years. However, drug companies don’t have patents on new drugs for this long a time because it takes several years for FDA approval. In your opinion, should drug patents be extended for 20 years? Who would benefit? Who would not benefit? I do not believe that drug patents should be extended for 20 years simply because of the high cost of new drugs. Many people cannot afford their medication unless it is generic. The consumer would not benefit, but the drug companies

Education & Identity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Education & Identity - Essay Example Douglass’ account Frederick Douglass is a prime example of this theory. He was born into slavery and lived through his early life serving his Master. His story revolves around the hunt for freedom and is engulfed in the concept of education affecting his perception of his own life. Since he started life as a slave, living to serve another was a norm for him and while his Mistress treated him with utter care in the beginning, she soon became wary of his thirst for knowledge. It is perhaps this thirst for knowledge that is equally influential in altering a person’s perception as without it, one may not pursue education and knowledge in the first place. Thus, Douglass was taught the beginnings of education by his new mistress Mrs. Auld. She later became extremely cautious of teaching him anything else or him learning anything else himself; â€Å"Mistress, in teaching me the alphabet, had given me the ~inch,~ and no precaution could prevent me from taking the ~ell.~† (Douglass). What this implies is that the educated elite were also wary of the power of education and it was not such a peculiar phenomenon. Ever since he learnt the alphabet, and realized that any further progress in education was scorned upon, he became all the more wary of acquiring knowledge and went to extreme lengths to learn to read and write. His efforts show his inclination and dedication to the task. His shrewdness gave way to several ingenious ways in the pursuit of education. He would employ several friends in the street and run his errands quicker than expected in order to save time for gaining knowledge through them. He started pondering over things he did not ponder over before, questioning his right to be free and why it was so difficult to attain: "You will be free as soon as you are twenty-one, ~but I am a slave for life!~ Have not I as good a right to be free as you have?" (Douglass). At times this newfound thinking became a measure of pain as well, and would dou se him in anguish whenever the question of slavery would arise in discussion. As his ability to read improved, so did his taste for newer books. He eventually read a book entitled The Columbian Orator which became the epitome of his changing perception. The story was very similar to his own wherein a slave who wished to be free from his master ran away thrice only to be returned to him. Eventually, after an intellectual discussion between him and the master, the slave is discharged of all duties at the master’s discretion. Of course, this sparked a growing urge within Douglass to be free himself. Notice how it incited a new drive inside of him to be free from anyone else’s possession rather than simply nurturing his old desire to read and write. While the old desire still persisted, the new feelings and emotions as a result of perceived education transpired within him superficially to overtake his old inclinations to read and write. Thus, it had a dual effect. This can be judged from the fact that he describes himself as a chattel earlier but later grows in feelings and emotions as a direct result of the knowledge he acquires, completely opposite to the description of a chattel. His perception was no longer the same regarding slavery. It did not just stop there. Once the perception changed, so did his desires in life. This revelation came as soon as he understood the meaning of abolition which,

Free Expression: Copyright

Free Expression: Copyright Copyright has been called an engine of free expression because copyright provides economic incentives to persons creative works to promote free speech (expression). However, some also argues that copyright is an obstacle to free expression as permission from a copyright owner is compulsory and may have to pay a licence fee when using other persons work. Historically, copyright and free expression has been regarded as separate parts. Both have constitutional underpinnings, and protection of artistic and intellectual freedom originates in the First Amendment. When considering whether monopoly control by authors, artists, and media corporations unduly restricts the ability of other authors, artists and corporations to copy, share, criticize, parody, or build upon copyrighted works, the Supreme Court has said that the two systems are not really in tension but complement each other. (Heins, 2003) This essay covers the argument for both sides of copyright; an engine of free expression and an obstacle to free expression or at least, copyright is no longer an engine of free expression. A number of journals, articles and books are used to support these arguments. Then, concludes how accurate the statement copyright has been called an engine of free expression is. If there was no copyright, information would be distributed differently. There would probably be patrons of the arts, both governmental and private, and the content of that art would be shaped by patrons preferences. Also, without copyright the coordination difficulties and free riding problems would make it difficult for the less wealthy to aggregate their resources and fund creativity. Conversely, copyright encourages creators/inventors toward works that may prove popular with some market segment. The desire to give a mass audience what it will pay for, while not dispositive of content, makes a significant difference in many creative decisions. Copyright encourages the creation and dissemination of the speech of those who seek economic incentives, decreasing the relative voices of those who create for personal satisfaction. (Tushnet, 2000) The Court has explained that copyrights purpose is to promote the creation and publication of free expression, and in 1985 the First Amendment (consists of the first 45 words of the Bill of Rights, ratified in December 1791, that protect the freedoms of religion, speech, press, assembly and petition. It serves as the blueprint for freedom of expression and religious liberty. (Paulson, n.d.)) stated that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦it should not be forgotten that the Framers intended copyright itself to be the engine of free expression. (Horowitz, 2009) These statements explain how copyright and the First Amendment accomplish the same goal the dissemination of new ideas through distinct means. Copyright pushes the dissemination by providing an incentive to create new expression while the First Amendment removes the obstacles in the way of that dissemination. (Hart, 2010) Therefore, copyright, in short, promotes freedom of speech. For example, Netanel, in his guest-blogging: Copyrights Paradox (2008), said that Copyrights economic incentive for the creation and dissemination of original expression is just one way that copyright promotes speech. and says that the copyrights effect is both qualitative and quantitative. For example, it supports a sector of authors and publishers who look to the market, not government patronage, for financial sustenance and who thus gain considerable independence from government influence. Moreover, he explains that copyright does not further free speech merely by providing pecuniary incentives and support. It also symbolically reinforces certain values and understandings that underlie our commitment to free speech.. He concludes that by encouraging authors, copyright gives the laws imprimatur to the social and political importance of individuals new original contributions to public discourse. On the other hand, there are some views that copyright restricts the free expression. In the nineteenth century, unlike today where the principal beneficiaries of copyright protection are recording companies, film producers, and other media corporations, they were individual authors and dramatists. During that century copyright was protected for a relatively short time before the work entered the public domain: in the United Kingdom, fourteen years (with a possible renewal for a further fourteen years) under the Statute of Anne of 1709, or subsequent to legislation in 1842, the authors life plus seven years. After that period works could be freely copied, so the right had much less impact on freedom of expression than it does now when the standard term of copyright is life plus seventy years. Further, during the nineteenth century, copyright was for the most part protected against literal copying, and not against translations and adaptations, where the copier, at least to some extent , adds creative or original features in the preparation of the infringing work. (Barendt, 2005, p.252) So, contrast to the nineteenth century, today we have a lot of restrictions on our expression with the copyright. Moreover, although the standard term of copyright is life plus seventy years, there is a case where this was broken. With the Sony Bono Act, Congress extended Americas already hefty copyright terms across the board for 20 years, thereby freezing the public domain at its 1928 dimensions. (Heins, 2003) Moreover, as copyright creates private monopolies in expression, a copyright holder can prohibit or permit the use of his/her copyrighted expression, or demand a licence fee. Also it is concerned that copyright does not limit the dissemination of ideas or the spread of news and information, but only the use by others of the expression of the holder of copyright. Melville Nimmer, a distinguished writer on many areas of free speech law as well as a great copyright lawyer, contended that in this way First Amendment concerns were met by copyright legislation. The conclusion is unsatisfactory as it does not do justice to the point that sometimes it is important for an infringer to use the very words or other distractive expression of the copyright holder, if he is effectively to communicate his ideas, perhaps the sentiment that the quoted or parodied work is meretricious. Nimmer himself did not think the distinction worked where an idea and its expression are inseparable, as in a news pho tograph. Reproduction of film of the assassination of President Kennedy or of the famous photograph of the My-Lai massacre in Vietnam necessarily used a distinctive form of expression in order to communicate the character of the particular news event. (Barendt, 2005, p.249) From the book Copyrights Paradox (2008), Netanel said Copyright does provide an economic incentive for speech. But it may also prevent speakers from effectively conveying their message and challenging prevailing views. Netanel explains this with a best-selling novel The Wind Done Gone by Alice Randall as an example. Randal uses the setting and character of Margaret Mitchells Gone with the Wind, from the viewpoint of a slave. Contrast to Mitchell, Randall focuses on miscegenation and slaves calculated manipulation of their masters. However, Mitchells heirs brought a copyright infringement action against Randalls publisher. Although the Eleventh Circuit Court of Appeals immediately vacated the injunction, a Georgia district court preliminarily enjoined the Randalls novels publication due to unabated piracy. Natanel added that It held that by barring public access to Randalls viewpoint in the form of expression that she chose, the trial courts order acted as a prior restraint on speech, standing sharply at odds with the shared principles of the First Amendment and copyright law. He also added that Indeed, while Randall eventually emerged victorious, not all courts have proven as solicitous of First Amendment values as the Eleventh Circuit panel that lifted the ban on her novel. Netanel, again, in his guest-blogging: Copyrights Paradox (2008), throws a question, in the digital age, does copyright law still serve as the engine of free expression? He explains that, in the Internet many of original expressions are distributed without any claim of copyright by its author (or at least without any effort to use copyright to prevent copying). Many Internet speakers are volunteers, happy to exchange and express their views without any expectation of monetary remunerations. Others make their creative expression available for free to enhance their reputation or sell related products. In addition, he suggested that the claim that copyright is engine of free expression must rest on an argument about copyrights incremental speech benefits. He argues that if we are to believe that copyright continues to be necessary to promote free speech, we must posit that (1) the copyright incentive generates the creation and dissemination of original expression over and above the rich array of speech that would be available even without copyright and (2) this additional copyright-incented expression has independent First Amendment value. The First Amendment value means it enables citizens to express their thoughts and beliefs in a free society. (Paulson, n.d.) As he argues in his book Copyrights Paradox, copyright does have those (as stated above) incremental benefit. Many works require a material commitment of time and money to create, for example, numerous full-length motion pictures, documentaries, television programs, books, products of investigative journalism, paintings, musical compositions, and highly orchestrated sound recordings constitute such sustained works of authorship. It is generally far too expensive and time-consuming to create such works, let alone create with the considerable skill, care, and high quality that the best of such works evince, to rely on volunteer authors. Nor are alternative, non-copyright business models necessarily more desirable than copyright. For example, we might not want our cultural expression to be populated with product placement advertising or devalued by treating it as a mere give-away for selling other products. Netanel also added that many of these types of works have considerable First Ame ndment value. He said while copyright is no longer THE engine of free expression (if it ever was the sole engine), it remains a vital underwriter of free speech (Netanel, 2008). By saying this, he recognizes that, although the copyright cannot be said to be an engine of free expression, it is still an important factor in promoting the free speech. In conclusion, it is clear that copyright has been an engine of free expression. The Court explained that copyrights purpose is to promote the creation and publication of free expression and the First Amendment stated that Framers intended copyright itself to be the engine of free expression. Giving economic incentive is the one way of promoting free expression. Turchnet (2000) and Hart (2010) argue that copyright encourages the creation and dissemination of the speech of those who seek economic rewards, decreasing the relative voices of those who create for personal satisfaction. Also Netanel, in his guest-blogging: Copyrights Paradox (2008), argued same statements. Moreover, he explained that copyright also symbolically reinforces certain values and understandings of that underlie our commitment to free speech. However, some argues that copyright is not an engine of free expression. Barendt (2005) explained that there are more protections for copyrights than before so it made people harder to express their ideas. Also Netanel (2008) said copyright can prevent speakers from effectively conveying their message and challenging prevailing views. He gives an example of novel The Wind Done Gone by Alice Randall to support his arguments. Although the court later void the injunction, a Georgia district court preliminarily enjoined the Randalls novels publication due to unabated piracy In here, the courts order acted as a prior restraint on speech, and opposite to the First Amendment and copyright law. Barendt (2005) also argued that as copyright creates private monopolies in expression, a copyright holder can prohibit or permit the use of his/her copyrighted expression, or demand a licence fee. Therefore, we should not say the statement that copyright is an engine of free expression is accurate as it has opposite arguments with evidences (; level of accuracy is low). As long as it promotes free expression (or speech) it can be said that the copyright is an engine of free expression but prior to that, copyright law should be loosen so that people can more freely express their ideas/speech effectively. Also, the Court needs to well-understand the meaning of First Amendment and copyright laws to prevent cases like Alice Randals. This way, the statement will be more accurate. So we should not only protect copyright owners too much, rather we should allow people to use some concepts or meanings of others (copyright owners) to build/create new expressions effectively. History of Russian Architecture: 1924 1932 History of Russian Architecture: 1924 1932 Russian architecture since the eleventh century up to the early 20th century was predominantly religious. For many centuries, churches were the only buildings that were constructed out of stone. However, the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the influence of the Suprematism movement of 1915 brought about the birth of Constructivism, the modernistic architectural style of Russia from 1924-1932. The brief period that followed the 1917 Revolution marked the beginning of the influence of the avant-garde Constructivist movement in the structure and design of major buildings. It enjoyed a short popularity until the late 1920s when it was repudiated by the more conservative Stalinist-era architecture (Russian Art, 2005). The principles of Constructivism theory come from three main art movements that evolved in Europe during the early part of the 20th century: Russian Suprematism, Dutch Des Stijl, or Neo Plasticism, and the Bauhaus in Germany (Constructivism, n.d.). In early 20th century Russia, particularly in 1917, there was a series of revolutions that eventually destroyed the autocracy of the Tsar. This series of revolutions led by the workers of Russia under their leader Vladimir Lenin was known as the Russian Revolution. The February Revolution in March of 1917 focused on St. Petersburg. During this time, the Soviets, or workers councils, delegated to the members of the Imperial Parliament the task of governing Russia and overthrowing Nicholas II, the Tsar during that time and the last of the Tsars. Meanwhile, the Soviets, led by the socialists or Bolsheviks, had the full allegiance of the lower-class citizens and workers as well as the political left. The Bolsheviks then formed workers militias. In the October Revolution that followed, the Bolshevik party under the command of their leader Vladimir Lenin, as well as the workers councils, overthrew the Provisional Government in St. Petersburg. Eventually, the success of the revolution paved the way for the birth of the USSR. After this series of events, peasants took over the lands previously owned by the vassals and redistributed land. This also marked the beginning of communal existence especially among the working classes, which led to the building of several constructivist buildings to house the first communities and to promote the ideology of communism (Mosley, n.d.). The Suprematism Movement of 1915 Suprematism is the main ideology in art that inspired Constructivism, which is the predominant architectural style of Russia during the period from 1924 to 1932. Suprematism lasted from 1915 to 1935 and is regarded as the first systematic school of modernism based on purely abstract pictorial compositions and geometric figures. It is a Russian art movement which was originally founded in Moscow in 1913 by the Russian painter Kazimir Malevich (Suprematism, 2007). Malevich advocated Suprematism as he believed that this is the perfect way to liberate art from the ballast of the representational world. He himself did this by producing art consisting of geometrical shapes flatly painted on the surface of the canvass. The goal of Suprematism is pure sensation and the pictorial space should be emptied of all symbolic content as in Surrealism. Malevich believed that art has to be decongested and cleared in order to show a new reality where the most important thing is thought as well as sensation. Malevichs Suprematism was also heavily influenced by the then avant-garde movements in art such as Cubism and Futurism (Suprematism, 2007). Suprematism, considering that it was based on Malevichs spiritual beliefs, was regarded as non-objective and apolitical. Aside from its use of only geometric shapes as the ones demonstrated by constructivist forms of architecture, Suprematism also emphasized the use of a limited color range, which explains the overall appearance of constructivist buildings (Suprematism, 2010). The Beginnings and Golden Age of Constructivism Early Influences. The development of Suprematism led to the movement toward a non-objective art, or art without a subject, in architecture. During the early years of Constructivism, the Russian modernists or avant-garde started embracing Cubism and Futurism (Constructivism, n.d.), which were two of the major sources of influence of Constructivism. Cubism was a 20th century modern movement popularized by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque in France and other parts of Europe from 1907-1921. Futurism, on the other hand, started in Italy in 1910 and from 1920-1940 was used in the construction of buildings despite the opposition of the fascist state which favored classical Roman imperial patterns. Tatlins Constructivism. In 1913-1914, the Russian and Soviet architect and painter Vladimir Tatlin used industrial materials to make and exhibit a number of relief constructions. He was inspired by Italian futurist Umberto Boccionis dream of plastic configurations in space and Pablo Picassos 3D collages, both of which he described by using the term Constructivism. Vladimir Tatlin was indeed the progenitor of this post-Revolutionary movement in architecture (Constructivism, n.d.). The Constructivist Manifesto. The year 1921 marked the appearance of the first Constructivist manifesto after the formation of the First Working Group of Constructivists in Moscow. The key artists were Vladimir Tatlin, Kasmir Malevich, Liubov Popova, Aleksandr Rodchenko, Vavara Stepanova, Vasily Kandinsky, Naum Gabo, Antoine Pevsner, El Lissitzky (Constructivism, n.d.). Actual constructivist theory and design practice began in 1922 in conjunction with the formulation of Vesnin brothers of the plan for the Palace of Labor, which was presented during a competition in 1922. However, actual building on a significant scale did not start until 1925 after the founding of the Union of Modern Architects, the official organization of the Russian Constructivist architects. By 1925, the first experimental office and residential buildings began their first appearance (Soviet Constructivism, 2007). The Union of Modern Architects. Towards the end of 1925, the Constructivists of Russia formed their own organization as a response to the decision of the Rationalists to establish the Association of New Architects, or ASNOVA, two years earlier in 1923. The Union of Modern Architects, or OSA, was initially composed of the brothers Aleksandr, Viktor and Leonid Vesnin, Mikhail Barshch, Andrei Burov, Moisei Ginzburg, Ginzburgs pupils Georgy Vegman, Ruvim Khiger, Vyacheslav Vladimirov, and the artist Aleksei Gan. Ivan Nikolaev and Ilya and Panteleimon Golozov decided to join later (Soviet Constructivism, 2007). While the Rationalists and ASNOVA focused on their search for purely aesthetic abstract forms, the Constructivists and OSA brought to life a novel, more practical architectural form, with reference to the purpose of the of the specific building, the materials used to construct it, its design and other conditions for production, and most of all the promotion of social development of Russia at that time. While the Rationalist emphasized the artistic or aesthetic side of architecture, the Constructivists favored its functional aspect (Soviet Constructivism, 2007). The Golden Age of Constructivism. The period from1927 to 1929 was considered the golden age of Russian avant-garde architecture. In these three years, a small group of Russian constructivist architects was able to build or plan the best-known buildings in the country. Among the structures built during this time were the Zuyev Club by Ilya Golosov, all the clubs by Konstantin Melnikov and his house, Lenins Mausoleum and the Narkomzem building by Aleksey Shchusev, Narkomfin by Ginzburg and Milinis, the Barshchs and Sinyavskys Planetarium, and Nikolaevs communal house for students (Soviet Constructivism, 2007). The Concept of Constructivism Constructivism, or Constructivist Art, is a term used to describe a type of non-representational, or totally abstract, relief construction, sculpture, painting, and kinetics. Constructivist buildings are usually ordered and often minimal, spatial, geometric, architectonic and experimental with how industrial material is used (Constructivism, n.d.). Furthermore, constructivism combined engineering and advanced technology with a dominant Communist social purpose. The movement produced several pioneering projects as well as prominent buildings and structures before falling out of favor during the early 1930s (Constructivist Architecture, 2010). Early constructivist art and architecture, just like Communism, was idealistic and seeking a new order that dealt with various social and economic problems. The appearance of several constructivist buildings and monuments is characterized by an emphasis on geometrical shapes like rectangular solids and cylinders, often intersecting each other or demonstrating asymmetry. Limited color range is another quality of constructivist buildings, with the choice of color as flesh or white signifying simplicity in the communal society. Red was also a very popular choice of color for the buildings and monuments like Lenins Mausoleum as this color was known to symbolize Communism. Both the geometrical emphasis and the limits in color are characteristics of Constructivist Architecture brought about by the influence of Suprematism, which was the most dominant art movement in Russia at that time (Suprematism, 2010). German Constructivism or the Bauhaus Architecture. The German word Bauhaus literally means House of Building or Building School. It refers to a school in Germany famous for the style and design that it taught. It is a form of modernist architecture that was founded by Walter Gropius and existed in Germany, some parts of Europe, the United States, and Israel from 1919 to 1933. The Bauhaus was an architectural ideology similar to Russian Constructivism and existed at the same time that it did. As Constructivism lost its favor because of Stalinist Neoclassicism, the Bauhaus gradually became inactive as the Nazi rose to power (Zisling, 2010). Just like Constructivist structures, Bauhaus buildings usually possess a cubic design and favor right angles owing to its geometrical figure. Nevertheless it may occasionally feature rounded corners as well as balconies. These buildings usually have an open floor plan and smooth facades (Zisling, 2010). Below is an example of a Bauhaus building in Tel Aviv, Israel: Taken from: http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Society_HYPERLINK http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Society__Culture/Architecture/Bauhaus.htmlHYPERLINK http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Society__Culture/Architecture/Bauhaus.html_Culture/Architecture/Bauhaus.html The Most Notable Constructivist Buildings The Rusakov Workers Club. One of the most notable examples of constructivist architecture inMoscow is the Rusakov Workers Club. It was designed by Konstantin Melnikov and was constructed from 1927 to 1928. On the outside, the club resembles a fan and in elevation, it is made up of a base and three cantilevered concrete areas for the seats. If the seating areas are combined, the building can seat over 1,000 people while each of these three cantilevered seating areas can be used as a separate auditorium. More conventional offices are found at the rear of the building. Moreover, the materials used in its construction are glass, concrete and brick. The constructivist identity of the building is expressed in its exterior, which the architect Melnikov himself described as a tensed muscle. On the outside, the three seating areas are seen as three large rectangular solids protruding from the walls of the building on the upper part. Melnikov naturally applied his own values to its construction by setting the Rusakov Workers Club, as well as other clubs he had designed, against the hostile city rather than belonging to it by employing sharply distinctive forms to make the structure appear individualist and unique against the general backdrop of urban buildings (Rusakov Workers Club, 2009). Taken from: http://www.housing.com/categories/homes/soviet-constructivist-architecture-1922-1936/rusakov-workers-club-1927-1928-konstantin-melnikov.html Svoboda Factory Club. Another constructivist building worth mentioning is the Svoboda Factory Club, or Maxim Gorky Palace of Culture. It was also Konstantin Melnikov who designed the building in 1927. It was completed two years later. For the general design of the Svoboda Factory Club, a conventional rectangular masonry block was used as a replacement for the original plan of using a flat elliptical tube, thus giving its design a constructivist spirit. The staircase was not curved but built straight, leaving the central rostrum column as the only curvilinear element in the structure. However, although the central rostrum column balances the left and right halves of the building, these halves are not identical with the north side end block significantly higher than the opposite one. This unique feature is a quality of the individualism of the constructivist movement. Nonetheless, the central rostrum hides such a discrepancy (Svoboda Factory Club, 2009). Taken from: http://www.housing.com/categories/homes/soviet-constructivist-architecture-1922-1936/svoboda-factory-club-1929-konstantin-melnikov.html Zuev Workers Club. Another prominent example of constructivist architecture is the Zuev Workers Club in Moscow. The architect Ilya Golosov designed the structure in 1926 and it was finished after two years. The original function of the building was to house various facilities for the workers of Moscow. The innovative and unique glazing treatment at its corner and the faà §ade formed from the dramatic intersection of a cylindrical glazed staircase and a stack of rectangular floor planes (Zuev Workers Club, 2009) prove to be very photogenic and make the Zuev Workers Club a symbol of Russian avant-garde architecture. These two unique qualities reflect a strong unique identity which is characteristic of Soviet Constructivism. The stack of rectangular floor planes has behind them a sequence of club rooms and open foyers that lead to a rectangular auditorium made up of 850 seats. Golosov, like Melnikov, was an enthusiast not for the logics but for the dynamic forms Constructivist design methods. In the Zuev Workers Club, this is evident in the immensely powerful drama of the cylinder intersecting the flat planes (Zuev Workers Club, 2009). Taken from: http://www.housing.com/categories/homes/soviet-constructivist-architecture-1922-1936/zuev-workers-club-1928-illya-golosov.html Narkomzem. Also known as Peoples Commissariat of Agriculture, Narkomzem was another noteworthy example of avant-garde architecture in early 20th century Russia. The building, which is now used today as a working ministry, was designed by Aleksey Shchusev and was finished in 1933. Taken from: http://www.housing.com/categories/homes/soviet-constructivist-architecture-1922-1936/narkomzem-1928-1933-aleksey-shchusev.html The most striking constructivist feature of the building is its corner details where a rectangular plane intersects with the cylindrical edge. Aside from the corner details, the overall asymmetry and the ribbon window located on the top floor remain to be the most striking features of Narkomzem (Narkomzem, 2009). Melnikovs House. The house of the architect Konstantin Melnikov, or simply known as Melnikov House, is one of the most notable examples of 20th century avant-garde architecture. It is located in Moscow and is located well away from the street. Taken from: http://www.housing.com/categories/homes/soviet-constructivist-architecture-1922-1936/melnikov-house-1927-1929-konstantin-melnikov.html Melnikov House is a building made up of a combination of both Futuristic and Classical designs consisting of two interlocking cylinders with the rear one noticeably taller than the front. The structure is also perforated with some sixty identical elongated hexagonal windows provided with Constructivist glazing bars. The asymmetry in the cylinders and the uniquely designed hexagons are testaments to Melnikovs commitment to Constructivism. The cylinders are made from stucco-covered bricks similar to those used in Russian churches and on the faà §ade are written the words KONSTANTIN MELNIKOV ARKHITECTOR (Melnikov House, 2009). Narkomfin. Another Russian building with constructivist design is the Narkomfin building. It was designed by the architects Ignaty Milinis and Moisei Ginzburg along with engineer Sergei Prokhorov. It was constructed from 1928 to 1930 for the purpose of providing apartments for the employees of the Peoples Commissariat of Finance, of the Narkomfin. The transitional, semi-communal apartment was supposed to introduce to the Soviet citizen the communal way of life and to introduce communism into the heart of domestic life and prepare the citizens to fully live a communal existence (Narkomfin, 2007). Narkomfin, for its constructivist elements, had a long elegant faà §ade with several rows of horizontal windows. It was topped with the Commissars penthouse making it look like and be called the ship. Upon its completion it turned out to be an ensemble composed of three buildings: the housing block, the communal block and a small laundry building. The Narkomfin has remained an icon of modernism in avant-garde architecture of Soviet Russia primarily because of these constructivist elements that make it stand out among the rest (Narkomfin, 2007). Taken from: http://ciudadlab.com/blog/2008/03/narkomfin-to-be-hotel.html The Narkomfin building was also known as the most perfectly realized building out of all the communal buildings constructed during the Constructivist Era or in the utopian years of the early Soviet Union. It was also considered the prototype for the modern European apartment blocks and housing estates. Now, the Narkomfin remains as a pilgrimage sites for historians and architects from all over the world. (Narkomfin, 2007). Communal House of the Textile Institute. Built from 1920 to 1930, the Communal House of the Textile Institute, or the Communal House for Textile Institute Students, in Moscow is considered Ivan Nikolaevs masterpiece and is another noteworthy architectural work of the Soviet constructivist era. Popularly called Nikolaevs House or The Hostel, the Communal House demonstrates the dom kommuna, or the 2000 adult apprentices shared cabins along an eight-storey block extending for a length of 200 meters. There was a creative mix of dining rooms and recreational spaces in the low block (Communal House, n.d.). The Communal House was actually built for textile students to live and study in while adopting a strict military communal fashion that starts with a wake-up call, and proceeds with exercise, shower, and study. The constructivist elements of the Communal House include half-round stair towers, the triangular staircase, and the vast rectangular volumes as well as the asymmetry demonstrated by the uneven intersections of the various planes in the faà §ade of the building (Communal House, n.d.). Taken from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nikolaev_commune_2008_stairs_01.jpg The Barshchs and Sinyavskys Planetarium. The Barshchs and Sinyavskys Planetarium, or the Moscow Planetarium, was established on November 5, 1929 and is considered at present a center of natural sciences. The planetarium is principally involved in reading public lectures and implementing scientific and artistic programs in cosmonautics and astronomy. In the observatory of the planetarium, one can watch the sunspots, the Moon, the planets and many other heavenly bodies with the use of a telescope (Moscow Planetarium, 2004). M. O. Barshch and M. I. Sinyavsky were responsible for the design of the planetarium and commenced the construction on September 23, 1928, the day of the autumnal equinox (Moscow Planetarium, 2004). The planetarium was actually one of the largest projection domes for any planetarium in the world, which makes this unique feature one of its most prominent characteristics as a symbol of avant-garde Soviet architecture. However, its apex was only 4cm thick (Monuments of Constructivism, 2007). Taken from: http://www.stardome.ru/english/english.html#BASIC1 Red Banner Textile Factory. Located in the former city of Leningrad, now St. Petersburg, the Red Banner Textile Factory was partially designed by the first foreign architect asked to design in the USSR, Erich Mendelsohn, in 1925 to 1926, and later designed by E. A. Tretyakov, S. O. Ovsyannikov, and Hyppolit Pretraeus until its completion in 1937 (Wandering Camera, n.d.). The Red Banner Textile Factory was a dynamic, futuristic large factory and was a most notable example of Soviet Constructivist architecture. The Red Banner Factory resembled a ship with the top part of it jutting out of the planes. There is also an asymmetry with the intersection of the cylindrical and rectangular sections of the building on the outside. These two constructivist features of the factory give it its unique identity and make it stand out (Wandering Camera, n.d.). Taken from: http://www.enlight.ru/camera/249/index_e.html Notable Architects of Russia from 1924-1932 Vladimir Tatlin. The Russian constructivist designer Vladimir Tatlin was considered the progenitor of Soviet Constructivism because of his revolutionary exhibits of relief constructions from 1913 to 1914 (Constructivism, n.d.). He was also responsible for the appearance of the Constructivist Manifesto in 1921 which paved the way for the first construction of a plan for a constructivist building in 1922 and the actual establishment of constructivist office and residence buildings in 1925 (Soviet Constructivism, 2007). Tatlin trained at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture as well as in the Penza Art School. It was after completing his formal studies that he joined a group of avant-garde painters and writers all over Russia. It was also during this period that he formulated several designs for a theater and participated in exhibitions (Vladimir Tatlin, 2010). Konstantin Melnikov. Melnikov was one of the big names in Soviet constructivist architecture, being the architect behind the Rusakov Workers Club, the Svoboda Factory Club and his own Melnikov House. Melnikov apprenticed as an engineer after attending the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture. He studied architecture from 1912 to 1917 and it became his passion although he initially studied painting in 1905. As a romanticist and a supporter of Communism, Melnikov was an architect who had independence of mind and rejected the principle of method in design and instead focused on intuition as the most essential factor in expressing the social and symbolic meaning of an architectural form such as a building. In his works, Melnikov struggled to combine Classicism and Leftist Modernism and often designed his architectural masterpieces with explicit and symbolic historicism (Konstantin Melnikov, 2010). Ilya Golosov. A leader of Constructivism from 1925 to 1931, Ilya Golosov was the Russian architect responsible for the design of the Zuyev Workers Club in Moscow and communal housing in Ivanovo. Just like Tatlin and Melnikov, Golosov studied at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculture and Architecture. However, he also studied in the Stroganov School of Arts. He became an apprentice to the architects Igor Grabar and Alexey Shchusev, who is also a notable constructivist architect. He also worked as a military engineer and a teacher. His main impression with the works of the Vesnin brothers made him join the constructivist organization, or the OSA Group in 1925, and from then on he started designing his masterpieces. However, although Golosov was a champion of Constructivist architecture, he regarded the architectural philosophy of Constructivism only as ideal for exterior decoration but not for wholesomeness in terms of functional style. These contrasting views of his regarding Constructivism eventually made him abandon the avant-garde form of architecture in 1932 and settled for neoclassical architecture in his works, hence from Soviet Constructivism to Soviet Realism (Ilya Golosov, 2010). Ivan Sergeevich Nikolaev. Another name in the Soviet Constructivist architects hall of fame is Ivan Nikolaev. He was famous for the constructivist design and even the formulation of the rules and regulations of the Communal House of the Textile Institute built from 1929 to 1931. He devised a rather rigid and Communist procedure for the members of the training institute which was supposed to be followed through very single day: a wake-up call, exercise, shower and study. In addition Nikolaev was also famous for his modernist campus of the Moscow Power Engineering Institute. He, however, abandoned his constructivist beliefs in order to adopt Stalinist architecture (Constructivist Architecture, 2010). Aleksey Shchusev. Another prominent name in avant-garde Soviet architecture of early 20th century Russia was Aleksey Shchusev. Shchusev was responsible for the constructivist designs of the Kazan Railway Station, the Narkomzem, or Agriculture Ministry, building in Moscow, and most important of all, Lenins Mausoleum on Red Square, which he designed only in a stunning period of three days (Narkomzem, 2007). Another one of his constructivist designs was the Institute of Resorts in Sochi, which he designed from 1927 to 1931. Shchusev was tasked to design many more buildings after 1932 and some say that he was even the originator of Gothic skyscrapers in Moscow (Soviet Constructivist, 2009). Shchusev studied a the Imperial Academy of Arts from 1891 to 1897 and his travels to North Africa and Central Asia from 1894 to 1899 may have somehow influenced his partial non-adherence to pure Constructivism. It is also worth mentioning that even before Shchusev designed buildings, he was already tasked to restore church and to design a cathedral during the first ten years of the 20th century. His restoration of the St. Basil Church in Ukraine, his designs for the Trinity Cathedral in Pochayiv Lavra, and the Marfo-Mariinsky Convent in Moscow made him one of the best and most versatile architects of his time (Soviet Constructivist, 2009). Erich Mendelsohn. The expressionist architect Erich Mendelsohn was a German Jewish architect and the first foreign architect who was allowed by the USSR to work for them. In 1926, he partially designed the Red Flag Textile Factory in St. Petersburg. The constructivist design of the exterior of the factory made it resemble a ship. This particular masterpiece of Mendelsohn is similar to the Mossehaus, which he himself designed in Berlin. He also designed the rear view of the Einstein Tower in Potsdam and the Cohen House in London, all of which had designs similar to that of Soviet Constructivism. Mendelsohn studied architecture at the Technical University of Berlin and the Technical University of Munich, where he graduated cum laude in 1812. His initial work before he became an international architectural designer was as an independent architect in Munich (Erich Mendelsohn, 2010). Yakov Chernikhov. One of the champions of Russian Constructivism, not necessarily for his actual works but for his theories, was the name Yakov Chernikhov. Perhaps Chernikhovs only actual architectural achievement was the Red Nail Makers Factory, or Red Carnation Factory, built in St. Petersburg from 1930 to 1931. The rest of Chernikhovs fame is attributed to his written works. Chernikhov studied at the Odessa Art School where he taught drawing and sketching years later, and at the Academy of Arts at St. Petersburg where he graduated in 1925. He then joined the Constructivist movement and instead of concentrating on the actual practice of his profession, he wrote and published a series of books which showcased his constructivist architectural fantasies: Fundamentals of Modern Architecture, written from 1929 to 1930; Construction of Architectural and Machine Forms, written in 1931; and Architectural Fantasies: 101 Compositions, written in 1933. These three books did not only make him famous all over the world but also became a source of inspiration to many generations of architects. He had five more books published from 1934 to 1948 (Architect-artist, n.d.). His first book, Fundamentals of Modern Architecture, emphasized the origins of architectural forms, settings and principles, which, according to Chernikhov, are based on asymmetry, the harmony of the components, rhythm of the masses, rhythm of proportions and the shock of the expressivity of its elements (Fundamentals, n.d.). The ideals of the book are explicitly expressed by the words of Chernikhov himself: By rejecting naked, ascetic, boxed architecture, which offers no architectural saturation of space and does not satisfy our eye from the aesthetic side or the side of emotional experience, I tried through consonance of basic masses to achieve a truly expressive architectural image in new forms (Fundamentals, n.d.). A sample of Chernikhovs sketch in the Fundamentals is a constructivist geometrical model of a building like the one below: Taken from: http://www.icif.ru/Engl/cyc/oca/pages/OCA-167_1978-1-166-01.htm Chernikhovs second book, Construction of Architectural and Machine Forms, he enumerates the various architectural forms of the Industrial Age and defines the role and importance of machines in Constructivism. A sample of his sketch of a constructivist building from the Construction is as follows: Taken from: http://www.icif.ru/Engl/cyc/kamf/pages/35.htm Chernikhovs third book, Architectural Fantasies: 101 Compositions, is said to be the greatest book published during his life. It is all about the architectural forms in his mind which happen to be difficult and impossible to actualize during his time. In this book, Chernikhov underlines the role of architectural fantasies. He even defines them in his own words: Architectural fantasy stimulates the architects activity, it arouses creative thought not only for the artist but it also educates and arouses all those who come in contact with him; it produces new directions, new quests, and opens new horizons (Architectural Fantasies, n.d.). An example of his sketch of a constructivist building from his Architectural Fantasies is as follows: Taken from: http://www.icif.ru/Engl/cyc/101/pages/19.htm Decline of Constructivism A competition for a grandiose project for the Palace of the Soviets was held in 1932. The constructivists joined the competition with their best entries. However, there was an ever-growing criticism of Modernism as that time, and this affected as well all the Soviet Constructivism. The winning entry was therefore not constructivist but an eclectic Stalinist architecture project by Boris Iofan. By the end of the 1920s, Constructivism was eventually replaced by Postconstructivism, which featured buildings designed in a composite style and bore close resemblance to Neoclassicism (Constructivist Architecture, 2010).

Computers in the Lives of People Essay

In modern times, technology has greatly affected how people live. The advancement of technology has brought great improvement to all sectors like business, medicine, entertainment and a lot more. It is undeniable that it has increased productivity and efficiency in how people work. One of the vital products of technology is the computer. It is very evident how computers changed the way of life. Work becomes easier with the help of the computers. Data and information can be stored easily. Large numbers can be calculated and can be accounted immediately. Instant communication is possible through electronic mails. Research is easier and faster with the help of the computer. There is also an easy access for all business transactions. Computers play a significant role in the school system as well. They help students to learn more efficiently and help them do their work. Computers offer the Internet which help students research information for projects they may have. School computers also offer programs which can help anyone learn. Computers have proven extremely beneficial to students with certain speech, audio, and motor limitations. Students with special needs can use alternative input and output devices to interact with computers and do things that they normally could not accomplish independently. Further, computers also make writing and doing homework easier to complete. With spell check and other spelling tools, it makes it easier and faster to complete work. This is because you are not spending all your time going through your homework looking for spelling mistakes, because the computer automatically does it for you, making your life easier. These are just few of the reasons why computers are very important to us. On the other hand using computers has several disadvantages. The screens destroy eyes even with a low radiation screen. Many people complain for that issue, because then they have to pay for oculists and wear glasses. And students also skip studying and got a low grade. The research project aims to know the advantages and disadvantages of computers in Health and Studies.

Augustus Essay - 1148 Words

Augustus and His Success in Creating a Strong and Religious State Throughout his life, Augustus, the first emperor of Rome and self-proclaimed â€Å"restorer of the Republic†, sought to improve society. After a disastrous century of disorder, internal turmoil and a political system that was ultimately unsatisfactory for the empire, Augustus attempted to formulate a new Roman government and way of life. He believed that the degradation of Rome was due in large part to a â€Å"breakdown in religious tradition as well as political and moral order. Old rites had been forgotten, old temples were allowed to crumble in neglect, and the gods were angry with this†. Augustus attempted to renew peace and stability in Rome through political and†¦show more content†¦It included scenes of religious rites, processionals, Augustus and his family, (thus demonstrating his own piety), as well as conveying a sense of peace and Roman pride. The revitalization of Rome’s religious buildings was an enormous step in the religious revival of the Empire, and the healthy condition of the shrines confirmed for observers the healthy condition of the state as restored by Augustus. Word of this achievement was widespread; coins spread throughout the empire depicting the refreshed and attractive monuments. Ancient Roman coins were often used to convey political ideals, and Augustus â€Å"turned this tradition to his own purposes by stamping significant types on the coins such as ‘peace’ and ‘victory’†. Augustus not only commissioned coins which spread word about his achievements, but also those which associated him with the gods-gods which he was making such an effort to revive. Many coins depict pictures or symbols of the gods, such as Apollo, and by his association with these religious entities, Augustus was able to subtlety remind people of his power and greatness. 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